China's rapid economic growth has been facilitated by its large volume of rural to urban migration.China's projected future development,especially increasing urbanization,implies that such migration will further intensify.However,migration does not come without cost.There are concerns about the potential negative impacts of migration on children 's care,education,and,in particular,the self-esteem of children left behind in villages where one or both parents have out-migrated to cities.In this paper,we employ unique survey data collected from Shaanxi Province,where more than 4700 ninth grade students from 36 rural junior high schools in five counties were surveyed in late 2011.The results show that having both parents migrate into cities significantly reduced children 's self-esteem.The effects are also gender sensitive.Girls that had a father or both parents who had out-migrated were inclined to have lower self-esteem than boys.Moreover,our study findings indicate that parental migration decreased children 's self-esteem more for individuals with initial low self-esteem.
This paper contributes to the assessment of China's rural labor markets.According to our data,the increase in off-farm employment that China experienced during the 1980s and1990s continued during the 2000s.Our analysis shows that migration has become the most prevalent off-farm activity,although the destination of migrants is shifting from outside of one's province to destinations closer to home.The present paper finds that large shares of male and female individuals,especially those under 40 years,are working off the farm.These findings represent an important contribution to the labor economics field.First,the results of the present paper reveal that the labor transition from the agricultural sector to the non-agricultural sector for key segments of China's rural labor force is nearly complete.Second,although a large share of China's rural labor force work in agriculture,most of these workers are older men and women(and likely would not be willing to take low-wage,labor-intensive jobs).Third,the rising unskilled wage rate in China is partially a result of the tightening of the labor force in the young age cohorts.Finally,due to factors associated with the one child policy and other demographic transition forces,successive age cohorts will continue to fall in absolute number in the coming decade.Assuming China's growth continues,we expect to see further wage increases since it will take higher wages to coax more workers to work off the farm.
A significant gap remains between rural and urban students in the rate of admission to senior high school.One reason for this gap might be the high levels of tuition and fees for senior high school.By reducing students' expectations of attending high school,high levels of tuition and fees could be reducing student academic performance in junior high schools.In this paper we evaluate the impacts of a senior high tuition relief program on the test scores of poor rural seventh grade students in China.We surveyed three counties in Shaanxi Province and exploited the fact that,while the counties are adjacent to one another and share similar characteristics,only one of the three implemented a tuition relief program.Using several alternative estimation strategies,including difference-in-differences,propensity score matching and difference-in-differences matching,we find that the tuition program has a statistically significant and positive impact on the mathematics scores of seventh grade students.More importantly,this program is shown to have a statistically significant and positive effect on the poorest students in the treatment group compared to their wealthier peers.
Drawing on a survey of 106 secondary vocational schools and 7309 students in two provinces of China,this descriptive paper assesses whether vocational schooling is measuring up to government benchmarks for quality and whether poor students are able to access quality schools.We find that secondary vocational schoob have met government benchmarks for teacher qualification and training,student opportunities for practical training and adequate facilities.Furthermore,poor students access schoob of similar quality to non-poor students,even though 34 percent of poor students do not receive financial aid.We conclude that recent policies are successfully ensuring secondary vocational school quality and equity of access to school quality between poor and non-poor students.However,financial aid policies should be re-examined,such that poor students receive sufficient coverage.Moreover,given that input-based measures only proxy school quality,the government should consider holding schoob accountable for outcomes such as student learning.
